The anatomy of style | getting real nerdy about writing

You can put together all the brand books you like, but if you don’t care about style, it won’t matter much. Punctuation was invented by the Ancient Greeks to creatively direct how written text should be spoken aloud. Yes, even back then we had CDs wandering around telling us how to do stuff.

Anyway the point is, the style choices you make in writing are just as important as your persona, brand book, and voice and tone guidelines. They will carry your voice and add consistency to your brand. Feel free to browse or cmd+F a topic you’d like to learn more about. Anything unlinked here is coming soon.

There are just a few uses for them:

1. to indicate the genitive case (possessive or not)

2. to indicate a contraction

3. for stylistic reasons

Use an apostrophe to indicate a contraction

Contractions help you achieve a more human voice, quite literally because they read more like how we actually talk. Use an apostrophe in place of the dropped letter:

• Can’t

• It’s

• Mac ‘n’ cheese

• Won’t

  • Not wont as that’s an archaic noun for practice or custom

• Would’ve

Some contractions are tricky to spell. My solution is normally to avoid using them.

• Li’l is the generally accepted spelling of little when it’s contracted, but it’s awkward.

Use an apostrophe to indicate the genitive case

For singular and plural nouns not ending s, add an ‘s at the end of the word.

• That guy’s face was unreal.

• Those women’s faces were unreal too.

Plural nouns ending in s or es just take an apostrophe at the end of the word.

• The cats’ favorite treat was fish.

• The horses’ stable was huge.

• It was a girls’ night out.

  • “Girl’s night” implies one girl

For singular nouns that end in an s sound, the generally accepted rule is to write the word as you would speak it.

• Mr Hastings’ book then became Mr Jones’s.

Acronyms should use the same rules as singular nouns

• The TV’s picture quality was terrible.

  • Use one apostrophe when nouns form their plurals by adding either the letter s or -es (guy, guys; letter, letters; actress, actresses; etc.). 

    • Guys' night out (guy's night out implies only one guy)

Odd cases that can cause confusion

This is likely what causes most folks confusion, leading to the infamous “Grocer’s apostrophe”. There are some plurals that crop up which don’t require an apostrophe, but would nonetheless look confusing or strange without one.

• The do’s and don’ts of using an apostrophe

  • Not the dos and don’ts or the do’s and don’t’s

• Do you dot your t’s and cross your i’s?

  • Plural letters are one exception where you do add an apostrophe

Most commonly used to indicate a footnote containing extra clarifications or information.

They can also point to legal disclaimers; express omissions, such as dropping vowels in expletives; and indicate constructions that are ungrammatical.

Pronounced “aste-risk”.

Disclaimers and footnotes

• Place after all punctuation marks, except dashes

• Use superscript numbers if citing more than one source

Ungrammatical constructions

• Place before a word or phrase

• Use outside parentheses to show the missing word or phrase

• Use inside parentheses to show the errant word or phrase

Examples:

Go *(to) your room, and think about what you’ve done.

Go (*to) home, or I’ll call your parents.

Expressing omissions in swear words

• Use an asterisk to replace the first vowel of a swear word.

• For quotes or passages of time, use ellipses.

Preferred

• B*stard

Not preferred

• B*st*rd

• B******

• B*&%@#$

Are they brackets or parentheses? Both. The main difference is where you come from—in the UK we tend to call them all brackets. In the US, the round brackets are called parentheses.

How to use parentheses ()

Parentheses, or round brackets, contain information for clarity, an aside to the main point, or additional info. A pair of commas may be used for this same purpose, but if the clause already contains commas it may be less confusing to use round brackets. 

The use of brackets also indicates a more deliberate visual nod that it’s the writer making a personal note or opinion. Think of these as interruptions—when we see them, we know the author/editor is speaking directly to us as the reader.

Use parentheses to add an editorial or authorial aside

• It was agreed: They would move to Silent Hill. (Why they thought that was a good idea, I don’t know.)

If parentheses contain a standalone sentence, use a full stop (period) inside the parentheses.

• (This is the correct way to do it.)

If the sentence ends after the closing bracket, I prefer logical punctuation (because I’m British). Use the full stop after the closing bracket.

• I prefer logical punctuation (because I’m British).

It does tend to look clunky though, so I would normally rephrase to avoid this—especially if the parentheses close with a question mark.

• Ugly: He was so tired he sat down (or did he fall?).

• Better: He was so tired he sat down. (Or did he fall?)

Avoid styling the parentheses after a comma.

• No: Whenever she thought of horror films, (which was often) she thought of Alien.

• Yes: Whenever she thought of horror films (which was often), she thought of Alien.

How to use brackets []

Square brackets are mainly used in journalism to insert explanatory material; indicate editorial comments; or to add or mark missing words, passages, and modifications of quotes.

Think of these as interruptions as well, only when we see these brackets, we know they are not from the original author.

Use square brackets to:

Add clarifications

• Candyman said to Jason: “I’m actually really into her [Sadako] if I’m honest.”

Add information

• They’re both the main protagonist in a fantasy film [Willow and Merlin].

Add missing words

• “Don’t forget hide your skin from [the] sun, Dracula.”

Use (sparingly) to modify direct quotes

• The Mummy told me he “like[s] to watch.” (The original quote was, “I like to watch.”)

  • This is to maintain journalistic integrity and indicate where modifications have been made to the original material.

Nest parenthetical asides inside parentheses

• Square brackets can also be nested (using square brackets [like these] inside round brackets) to show asides.

Syntax

Don’t use a comma to separate two independent clauses.

A comma splice, or a run-on sentence, is the most common mistake people make. Put plainly, joining two standalone sentences with a comma is incorrect.

There are a few ways to fix this, but, normally, a full stop is best—this keeps writing short and snappy, with a touch of rhythm. Of course, it depends on the sentence.

• Incorrect: I got home, I took my shoes off, I ran to the kitchen.

  • Correct: I got home, and I took my shoes off. I ran to the kitchen.

  • Correct: I got home. I took my shoes off. I ran into the kitchen.

  • Correct: When I got home, I took my shoes off, and I ran into the kitchen.

If two independent clauses are joined by a conjunction, use a comma.

If you have two full sentences joined by words like and, then, or but, use a comma after the joining word. This helps to separate the two complete ideas, but it also keeps them connected and shows they’re equally important and related thoughts.

• I took my shoes off, and I ran right into the kitchen.

It’s OK not to use a comma if the two sentences are really short.

• I ran and I ran.

A complex one: If the subject of the sentence does not appear in front of the second verb, it’s OK not to use one unless there would be confusion.

Um, what? I know. It’s way easier with the example:

• I took my shoes off and ran into the kitchen.

  • There is no I in front of ran, but it’s clear who did the running.

• I could tell she was angry and prepared to fight.

  • I could tell she was angry, and prepared to fight.

Without the comma, it reads as though she is prepared to fight. With the comma, it reads as though I prepared to fight.

If you start a sentence with a dependent clause, follow it with a comma.

• If you don’t tell him, I will.

• When he turns around, give me the signal.

If your sentence starts with an independent clause, followed by a dependent clause, there’s no need to use a comma.

• Tell me everything you know if you haven’t already.

Introductions and interruptions

Use a comma if you start a sentence with an introductory phrase or word.

• Having experienced this more times than you, leave this one with me.

• Despite all the drama, I was happy to be home.

• Having eventually gotten to the pub, I went straight to the bar.

• Well, it’s now ten o’clock.

• Say, does anyone have a spare spinning jenny around here?

• Hey, don’t mess about with a hot poker in your hand.

When the introductory phrase begins with a preposition, you might not need a comma—but I would recommend rephrasing the sentence in this instance. Why? Unless you’re writing dialogue from the POV of a wise old king or some medieval se’er, it creates this weird, passive voice. Unless that’s what you’re aiming for?

• Into the deep, dark, depths of the ocean he stared. And, lo! He saw the truth.

• From that mountain to this valley, and all rivers in between, all this will be yours.

Non-essential words, clauses, notes, and phrases should be offset with parenthetical commas.

Translation: set aside information that isn’t essential with commas that act like parentheses.

• My book, which is available on iTunes, is about gremlins.

• Esmeralda, the good banshee with the glass eye, had arrived.

  • Let’s assume you already know which Esmeralda she is.

• Her favorite pet lizard, Dink, fell off the settee.

N.B. That introduces essential information into a sentence, so that phrases should not be preceded by a comma. Which introduces non-essential information, so which phrases should be offset by commas.

• I will not partner with anyone that undermines my profession.

• My favorite flavor, which reminds me of happiness, is cheese.

Offset phrases, terms of endearment, nicknames, or words that interrupt the flow of the sentence, much like non-essential information.

Do the same to bring attention to contrasting parts of a sentence.

• Come here, bubbletea, and sit down for a second.

• I was, nevertheless, going to confess everything.

• Peter knelt, in spite of himself, before his queen.

• However, she was not a fan.

• I came to form a habit of it, even so, despite my fear of heights.

• Will you, or will you not, listen to me.

• That is my cherry picker, not Antonio’s.

Separate statements from questions with a comma.

• She will make it, won’t she?

Use a comma before and after words that act as an introduction

Examples include words like such as, that is, for example, e.g., i.e., and for instance, when they’re followed by a list.

• You're required to show a range of characteristics during the test, such as, bravery, teamwork, and creative thinking.

A comma should also come before and after etc.

• He was smiling, laughing, etc., throughout the test.

Lists

Use a comma to separate items in a list of three or more

• I need to buy apples, oranges, and strawberries.

I would recommend always using the Oxford comma for clarity—even if it seems clunky or unneeded—just as a good habit. Note the difference:

• Jason was joined by his sisters, a five-legged girl named Schmadventure and a mysterious dog-faced card dealer.

• Jason was joined by his sisters, a five-legged girl named Schmadventure, and a mysterious dog-faced card dealer.

In one situation, Jason is joined by his very odd sisters. In the other, he is joined by his sisters and two additional (albeit strange) characters.

Use a comma to separate two or more adjectives when their order is interchangeable

• She was tall, dark, and handsome.

• The tall, dark, handsome woman was here.

Here’s a great tip to check if the adjectives are interchangeable: can you put an and in between them and the sentence still make sense?

• She was tall and dark and handsome.

• She wore a sparkly summer dress.

  • Note: “She wore a sparkly and summer dress” does not work, nor would it make sense to call it a “summer, sparkly dress”.

Quotes

Use commas to introduce or interrupt direct quotes. There’s no need for a comma if you’re referring the the quote as a subject or object.

• She said, “I will make you listen.”

• “Now wait a minute,” he said, “I’m in charge here.”

• She said “yes please” to everything she was offered.

Dates and titles and such

Use a comma to separate the day of the month and the year. There’s no need for a comma if you only have the month and year.

• I remember November 5, 2002, very well.

• November 2002 was when it all began.

Use a comma to separate cities from states and names from titles or other information.

• I couldn’t believe he was from Cleveland, Ohio.

• We all waited for James James, Sr., to arrive.

• She was finally Ms. Ellie Willam, PhD.

Use a colon to introduce what comes after it

The most important thing with colons is to pay attention to the sentences on either side of them. Whatever happens, make sure the sentence before the colon is independent.

• Use a capital letter the content following the colon is a complete sentence or more. If it’s not, don’t use one.

I had only one thing on my mind: horror films, and lots of them.

Jason had several mottos: Play well. Be kind. Go crazy.

Use a colon to introduce a list or item

• Don’t capitalize the first letter of the first item, unless it requires it.

I watched three films today: Dancer in the Dark, Requiem for a Dream, and Lost Highway.

She knew it would only take one thing to get through this day: sandpaper.

If you itemize the list in a bullet format, follow the normal rules for punctuation

• Full sentences should have terminating punctuation.

• Don’t use full stops if the bullets are not sentences.

I watched three films today:

1. Dancer in the Dark

2. Requiem for a Dream

3. Lost Highway

She required three things from any man wishing to court her:

1. He must have a great sense of humour.

2. He must be able to swim.

3. He should at least carry one good pencil at all times.

If the second sentence explains or elaborates on the first sentence, you can use a colon instead of a semicolon.

• She got what she had paid for: The cheese was luxurious and worth every penny.

Use a colon for ratios and times

• 1:4

• 15:33

• 08:00 PM

• 4:29 am

The signature use is to omit words or passages of text. Here’s the key to getting it right: this punctuation mark is about journalistic integrity. It indicates that the author has intentionally omitted a word or passage from a piece of text or a quote—without altering its original meaning.

When omitting material, it’s good practice to maintain the integrity of the original quote. It’s also good practice to use ellipses sparingly. (Even if you use correctly, overuse in one sitting looks suspicious, messy, and you lose the integrity you’re trying to maintain.)

• Original material: The staff are always attentive and friendly. They do a great job of making feel at home. The service is also timely.

• With Ellipses: The staff is always attentive and friendly... The service is also timely.

However, there are more ways to dot-dot-dot than that. Outside of this, use ellipses to indicate:

• An unfinished thought

• An awkward silence

• Trailing off at the end of a thought

• Melancholy or longing

• Irony or sarcasm

• An intentional pause

How do you stylize this dot-dot-dot?

British style tends to favour no spaces in between the dots, but a space on either side. American style varies. The Chicago Manual of Style prefers a space in between each dot. (I consider this unsightly and old fashioned.) The AP prefers to keep the dots sans space, and I agree: It’s tidier and conserves character space.

Here’s what I recommend:

• Style as three dots without spaces in between

• Don’t add a space before

• Use one space after

Exception: Add a space either side of the ellipses if indicating a pause. This will visually differentiate it from standard use and make the intentional pause clear.

“I want to buy red fruits, several breads, lots of cheese… butter, and something sparkly to drink.”

“Today is the first day of the rest of your life … Are you ready?”

Full stops (periods) with ellipses

• If the ellipses is at the end of an incomplete sentence, omit the final full stop as it isn’t a full sentence.

• If the ellipses indicates an omission between two complete sentences, or ends a complete sentence, add a full stop.

Exception: Don’t precede ellipses with a full stop... even though that’s actually illogical. This is to keep text fluid and readable—visual clutter interrupts the flow.

Oxford Style Guide: The … fox jumps …

University of Oxford Style: The…fox jumps…

Me: The… fox jumps….

They are considered less formal, so I recommend using them if your voice is more on the conversational spectrum. Beware of overuse: Avoid more than em dash one per paragraph, and never use more than one in a sentence, unless they are parenthetical.

• Don’t use a capital letter directly after an em dash.

• Avoid em dashees using in subject lines and push notifications, for character space.

• Consider reserving their use for bold, statement headlines only.

• Close the space around the em dash; it’s easier to read and less distracting without spaces.

• I recommend using em dashes if your voice is more on the conversational spectrum.

Expanding on a main clause

Like a colon, an em dash can expand with emphasis a main clause; this is considered to be less formal than using a colon.

• My brand colours are witchy meets under-the-sea, but like, for a long long time—a kind of drowned blue-green.

Connecting two sentences

You can also connect two sentences with an em dash, just like you can with a colon or a semicolon. The following clause should explain the clause that came before it.

• The shade of green and blue on this website aren’t accidental—teal, mint green, and azure were my favorite colors when I was at university.

An interruption or extra thought

Em dashes can also indicate an interruption in thought or a change in ideas.

• I think I should change my colours to red tones—no, actually, I like dead barnacle seaweed blue.

Parentheses with emphasis

Like parentheses, an em dash can also separate and draw special attention to ideas.

• The best thing about picking just one or two brand colours—besides the simplicity—is that it increases recall.

Use an en dash as a replacement for the words through or to when noting a duration of time.

• Business hours are Monday–Friday.

• We take a long lunch break from 12–4pm.

Don’t use an en dash in long-form copy—blogs, articles, body copy, and so on—write out the word it is replacing.

Do use an en dash in signage and UX/UI to save on character space and for visual simplicity, for example when listing out opening times. This adds clarity and is more straight-to-the-brain. Consider using in headlines as a design element or to save on length, depending on context.

• Use them to indicate exclamations, shouting, and enthusiasm.

• Keep them to a minimum to retain their value.

• Never use more than one at a time.

• Avoid them in subject lines as they can trigger spam filters.

• Always use a full stop (period) to end a sentence that isn’t a question or exclamation.

• There’s no need to use them for acronyms; it’s no longer typical in most writing and publications.

• Use a period to indicate abbreviations in a person’s name.

  • E.g. A. A. Milne

• Use in almost all latin abbreviations, bar am and pm.

  • E.g. e.g.

  • E.g. et al.

Their main uses are to signal a semantic relationship between words and to avoid confusion. With noun + noun combinations, if the stress is on the first half, we like to make those words solid. If there’s equal stress, we prefer to style them as open.

Compound nouns:

• Takeout

• Email

• Fire drill

• Football

• Co-op

Compound verbs:

• Overbooked

• Babysit

• Do over

• Re-enter

• Re-sign (vs. resign)

Compounds that come before a noun (and so describe it) should always be hyphenated to signal the combination is an adjective.

• Compound verb: They needed to puppy-proof the apartment.

  • Let’s kickstart the campaign today.

• Compound noun: You should have some self-confidence.

  • The greenhouse is full of vegetables, but not ice cream.

• Compound adjective: It was a top-notch film.

  • She has a highly visible tattoo. (Adverbs don’t need hyphenating since they modify adjectives or verbs, not nouns.)

Ages, colours, fractions, and number compounds (in words only) should all be hyphenated.

• A three-year-old idea

  • But not an idea that is three years old

• Three-hundred-year-old trees are different to three hundred-year-old trees or three hundred year-old trees

• A green-blue hue

  • But not a hue that is blue green

• A half-hour session

  • But not a half hour

• A seven-inch-long wasp

  • But not a wasp that’s seven inches long

• A ten-thirty train

  • But not a train at ten thirty

When adjectives, nouns, participles, gerunds, phrase combinations, and adverbs (not ending in -ly) are combined to modify a noun, they are normally hyphenated.

• Adjective + noun

  • A top-quality notebook

    • But not a notebook of top quality

• Adjective + participle

  • A funny-looking face

    • But not a face that’s funny looking

• Adverb + participle

  • A much-needed break

    • But not break that’s much needed

• Gerund + noun

  • A running-shoe shop

    • But not a running shoe

• Noun + adjective

  • A computer-literate grandma

    • But not a grandma who is computer literate

• Noun + gerund

  • An award-winning mole rat

    • But not a mole rat that is award winning.

• Noun + noun

  • Tenure-track position

    • But not a tenure track

  • Hunter-gatherer

  • Philosopher-king

• Noun + participle

  • A cake-filled lion

• Participle + noun

  • A cutting-edge technology

• Phrases

  • A matter-of-fact tone of voice

Some compound adjectives are always hyphenated, no matter what, so always check:

• The laid-back dude was laid-back.

• The state-of-the-art design is state-of-the-art.

Adverbs ending in -ly are never hyphenated:

• The beautifully painted picture was loved by all.

  • Not: beautifully-painted

• This highly anticipated event is going to be incredible.

  • Not: highly-anticipated

But some -ly words are hyphenated… fun!

• It was a family-orientated event.

• The friendly-looking dog definitely just smiled at me.

Adverb/preposition-noun compounds are normally styled solid:

• Upstairs

• Onstage

Prefixes and suffixes are normally hyphenated if they are newer combinations or there would otherwise be confusion, though some have become solid over time.

• Co-operate

• Post-war

• Re-evaluate

• Nondescript

• Unusual

• Likeable

• Fluffiness

I recommend using a hyphen to signify temporary compounds, regardless of prefix or suffix.

• Quasi-punk

• Like-able-ness

• Wasp-like

You should also use a hyphen to…

• … signify a single word in a line break

• … spell out a word, like H-E-L-L-O

• … indicate styles of speech

  • “Because I’m w-w-w-what? SICKENING.”

• … add more things to an word that’s already hyphenated

  • It was a seven- or eight-layered cake

  • Investor-owned and -operated

• … double-barrel names that require it

• Use to indicate an interrogative clause, a.k.a. a question.

• Don’t use more than one at one time.

Use quotation marks to indicate speech or direct quotes

When quoting direct speech or text, offset the statement using double quotation marks and provide attribution. Typically, British style uses single, then double quotation marks, but generally it’s reversed most everywhere else.

• Laquifa said I did a “good job” but the colors were “all wrong”.

• “They use buffalo mozzarella and burrata on their pizzas,” according to Jenny C, and it’s the “best Italian restaurant” she’s ever been to.

• “I have a dream…” —Martin Luther King, Jr.

• “David—stop the car,” Jackson said.

If you omit anything from the quote use an ellipsis with a space after it.

• Mr Bojangles noted various rules for his hostel, including: “smiling at the sun with your eyes closed, nodding at the elderly… and stopping to think before you speak.”

• The park has lots to do, including “a botanical garden that’s filled with roses and tulips… and there’s even a tennis court,” according to Shonda.

When quoting within a quote, use single quotation marks. Rephrase sentences that end with a possessive apostrophe or a single quotation mark and double quotation marks—it looks awkward, even if fine grammatically.

• Mary told me, “Janet was incandescent—she kept saying ‘I won’t have it, Mary’ and kicked the watering can.” It sounds like she might have been cross.

Don’t put the ellipsis in brackets. I recommend using no spaces before and one space after use. Only ever use three dots, unless you end the sentence with ellipses—in this instance, add the full stop at the end.

• Lucy told me she had many favourite things, including: “Books, music, ideas, colours, toys, sweets, flowers, stars, especially shooting stars….” The list wasn’t endless, but it was long.

Other uses for quotation marks include:

To indicate the title of a short or subsidiary work, e.g. a chapter.

• “In the Woods” is where things start getting really good in Watership Down.

Scare quotes for emphasis, often to show sarcasm.

• The “critics” think it’s a great film, but I disagree.

• He’s a “professional” writer.

When referring to a word as a word, if the placement doesn’t allow for italics. Typically, italics would be used to refer to words or letters as themselves, but this might go against your style guide—in UX/UI, for example.

• Make the world a more “you” kind of place.

Use a semicolon to connect two related, complete sentences.

• We must be good to one another; kindness makes a difference.

Use to separate items in a list where a comma is used to clarify a single item.

• I want to buy some chocolate; strawberries; cheese, the kind that goes with honey; and champagne.

Carefully consider the usage and placement of semicolons; they should be used infrequently as they can be distracting and make text harder to read.

Symbols & Typography

Accents

In brief, don’t use all caps. It’s not fun to be shouted at, nor is it polite to shout—and all caps are both unappealing and sound like shouting. Completely uppercase lettering is also harder to read because there’s less contrast between letters. Rather than draw attention, all caps muddies it. You should make few exceptions to this rule, barring things like city abbreviations, e.g. NYC, and brand or product names that require uppercase, e.g. NARS.

• Use for abbreviations

• Use for company names, if they use it

• Add spaces around words

• Don’t add spaces around letters

B&B

Tiffany & Co.

AT&T

• Don’t use an Oxford comma in front of an ampersand

• Don’t use in place of and in long-form copy or body copy

  • E.g. newspaper articles, website body copy, marketing emails, etc.

Generalised copy guidelines for ampersands

Do use in UX/UI headlines, text links, or subheads, especially in app, to save on character space

• Trust & Safety

• Takeaway & Delivery

For marketing headlines, subject lines, and other longer-form placements, consider how the ampersand works as both a design element as well as how it reads. Generally, if you’re writing a full sentence—regardless of channel or purpose—it usually scans better to write out and in full as people don’t “read” characters.

There are very few reasons, if but one, to use this symbol. Some financial institutions use it to indicate “at a rate of”. You may also see it used as shorthand for “at” to intro a location, say on a gig poster or sports event. For style, I recommend only using it for email addresses and aliases, such as with Slack or Twitter; as symbols go, it’s rather inelegant and somewhat of a typeface nightmare.

• Never use it to replace “at” in any form of copy, long or short

• Only use it for email addresses and aliases

Bold

Do use emojis in subject lines and push notifications

These are great places to add an artfully chosen emoji. Inboxes are an ever-crowded space, so the right emoji at the right time is a great way to catch your reader’s eye.

• Don’t go overboard. This isn’t a hard rule, but it’s good practice in general to self edit and practice dynamics.

• Don’t use the most recently release emojis. They won’t render across all platforms and browsers so it’s best to go tried and true.

• Don’t ever use them to replace a real word in a sentence. We don’t read icons as we do words, so it won’t read as smoothly as you might think.

• Don’t use them if it doesn’t complement the message. Just because you can, doesn’t mean you should.

The simpler emojis are usually more effective because they’re a faster get.

Don’t use emojis in body copy, headlines, or UX/UI

Avoid use of emojis outside of subject lines or push notifications. Whilst they’re an effective way to bring a human element to your voice (it’s why we use them in texts and instant chat) they’re generally too informal for most other channels.

Certainly avoid using emojis in UX/UI copy. They will most likely be confusing or out of place.

Hash (pound sign)

Italics

Links

Plus, minus, equals sign

Slash

Strikethrough

Times sign

Syntax

Active vs passive

Capitalization

Word list